Change ain't lookin' for friends. Change calls the tune we dance to.
- Al Swearengen, Deadwood
The International Relations theory of Constructivism employs the myth, “anarchy is what states make of it,” suggesting that anarchy exists, and that states can elect to be either cooperative or conflictual in its presence (Weber 60). It also examines global change and our reaction to it, as well as the processes of social interaction. Realism focuses on the existence of anarchy amongst states, and Idealism highlights the possibility of avoiding it, but only Constructivism implements change and social process, which are necessary elements to analyze when determining how a state will react in the presence of anarchy. In his 1992 essay, “Anarchy is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics,” Alexander Wendt asks, “Who is the author of international anarchy?” (Weber 61) In other words, if a state elects to participate in international anarchy, exactly who can be held responsible for such a decision? It might seem reasonable to hold a state's leading actors accountable, but as K. M. Fierke reminds us, “It is not that actors are totally free to choose their circumstances, but rather that they make choices in the process of interacting with others, and, as a result, bring historically, culturally, and politically distinct 'realities' into being” (168-169).
David Milch's HBO television series Deadwood exhibits just how important the themes of change and social process are in the face of anarchy. Set in the 1870s in the ungoverned, unclaimed, lawless camp of Deadwood, which had not yet been annexed into the Dakota Territory, the series semi-historically portrays the survival of the camp's inhabitants in the face of change. The show begins just six moths after the founding of the camp, and while many want to make their home in Deadwood close to its rich gold mines, few find the strength to hold their own in the face of its brutality. The first season supports the foundational principle set forth by Realism, that “anarchy is the permissive cause of war” (Weber 14). The purpose of the first season is to describe the lawlessness of the camp and to show that, without annexation, Deadwood is indeed an anarchical place to live. The only man willing to take on the responsibility of watching over the camp's security is Al Swearengen, the owner of the local Gem Saloon, a bar and brothel. In season one, he is challenged by a new Deadwood resident, Seth Bullock, a former Montana sheriff who wants to bring order to the camp. By the end of the season, Swearengen concedes to share the power with Bullock, and both men are considered the camp's watchdogs.
Season two briefly plays on Idealism's anarchy myth, which states that “there is an international society” (Weber 38). This myth suggests that, despite anarchy, states can overcome their differences for the greater good. Throughout the season, Deadwood begins to thrive. Bullock has become the new sheriff with a new deputy on his side, and some order has come to a once lawless society. A new hardware store, telegraph, and brothel arrive on the scene. Alma Garret, the widow of a gold claim seeker, has opened a bank. Deadwood is awaiting annexation into the Dakota Territory, and is preparing to hold elections. Business is booming in the camp, but change is on the horizon. This change, and the camp's reaction to it, will determine its future. It as at this point in the series when Constructivism comes into play. Through competitive, self-help behavior, members of the camp, as well as the camp's impending enemy, will construct realities that will best enable them to survive.
Residents are optimistic about the camp's annexation, until George Hearst, a successful California businessman and prospector, expresses interest in the camp's riches, threatening the Deadwood way of life. The threat of Hearst's presence in Deadwood comes before he physically arrives. Rumors of this prospector's interests make it into the camp ahead of him, creating a fearful curiosity amongst the residents. Near the end of season two, before we have seen the elusive Hearst, he sends a geologist, Francis Wolcott, to examine the camp's gold supply. Soon after his arrival, he murders three prostitutes at the new brothel, encouraging its owner, Joanie Stubbs, to send her remaining prostitutes out of Deadwood. Soon after, Hearst has a load of Chinese prostitutes hauled in to the camp. When they're overseer, Mr. Lee, burns the bodies of dead, malnourished prostitutes in the streets of Deadwood's Chinatown, a fellow Chinaman, Mr. Wu, who has operated in Deadwood for some time now, enlists Swearengen to help him end the atrocity. Wendt explains that “prior to social interaction, there is no such thing as a social threat,” and that “it is identities that produce collective meaning like social threats” (Weber 66). Although there has been no social interaction between Hearst and the camp's residents, those in his employ and their actions give him an identity, which, after these initial incidents, certainly seems threatening. In an act of retaliation and defense, Swearengen and Wu take back the reigns of this new reality by enacting vengeance on Lee, sneakily slitting his throat while he sleeps in Chinatown. This scheme is devised by Swearengen, who will soon become engaged in a series of reality reconstructions through the ordeal with Hearst.
Season two ends with Hearst's physical arrival in Deadwood. He makes it known that he is “only interested in the color,” meaning he wants the gold and nothing more. He is a ruggedly individualistic man who cares for social interaction with none other than his “nigger cook,” who takes care of him. His carelessness for the well-being of others is soon exhibited when he begins to stage the murders of his own miners, who have been trying to form a union. One such murder takes place in The Gem Saloon, Swearengen's business. Not only does Hearst wish to send a message to his “unruly” miners, he wants to send a message to the camp's highest authority, letting him know exactly how he does business (what he “makes of” anarchy) and who Swearengen is dealing with. This production unfolds before the public's eye, as most of these exchanges of constructed realities do occur in Deadwood. Both Swearengen and Hearst begin producing their reactions to one another's maneuvers in broad daylight. Swearengen is intent on banding the camp together against Hearst, and Hearst is intent on showing Deadwood his true nature, and his unyielding confidence strikes fear in the hearts of Deadwood's residents.
In an attempt to reassert his position in the camp, and out of anger at the murder in his saloon, Swearengen cancels the upcoming political debates. It becomes clear that Swearengen is no longer the camp's main decision-maker when Hearst punishes his decision by having his henchman, Captain Turner, restrain Swearengen while he cuts off one of his fingers. Hearst also makes it clear that he wants Swearengen to help him buy the banker Garret's gold claim. This display of force only gives Swearengen's henchman, Dan Dority, the desire to retaliate by fighting Captain Turner. In a long, drawn-out, bloody battle in the main fairway in Deadwood, and just before he is almost drowned in a puddle by Turner, Dority gouges out one of Turner's eyes and finally beats him to death with a club. Swearengen later finds out that Hearst instructed Turner to make the fight last as long as possible, even if at some point he had the upper hand. He is disillusioned in his attempt to retaliate against Hearst once more, never quite prepared for what he has to return. Through this public brawl, Hearst has shown that the streets of Deadwood will be brutal as long as his presence exists. “Anarchy is what states make of it,” and Hearst certainly takes advantage of the lawlessness in the camp.
After Hearst brings a militia of henchmen to Deadwood, Swearengen calls a meeting among the camp's elders to decide what action to take. The group decides to publish a letter, written by Bullock to one of Hearst's miner's families, subtly highlighting Hearst's foul nature. Their hope is that those outside of the camp, but still within the territorial jurisdiction, will form an opinion about Hearst and, in turn, vote for Bullock in the upcoming election. A strong arm will be needed to handle Hearst, after all, and Bullock's opponent, Harry Manning, is a meek and mild man who likely couldn't stand up to the challenge. The result? A.W. Merrick, the editor of The Deadwood Pioneer, is beaten by one of Hearst's men for his decision to publish the letter.
Hearst shows that he means business when he has Garret shot at as she walks down the Deadwood fairway to open the bank one morning. This is an obvious attempt to scare her into selling her claim, and to inspire others to encourage her to sell. Swearengen takes her into The Gem Saloon and watches out for her until he can devise a retaliation. Before the end of the day, members of the town unite to make a protective path for Garret to proceed with her walk to the bank. In the meanwhile, Hearst has Garret's husband shot and killed. When she learns this news, she decides to sell her claim to avoid further bloodshed. “Anarchy is what states make of it,” and even if it means concession, Garret is not willing to be a producer of war.
The final illusion between Swearengen and Hearst occurs when one of Swearengen's prostitutes, Trixie, opens Hearst's hotel room door, shoots him in the chest, and runs, leaving him for dead. However, the shot was not fatal and Hearst returns to Swearengen, demanding Trixie's death in return. Since Swearengen holds Trixie dear to his heart, he murders Jen, a less-worthy prostitute, in hopes of passing off her body as Trixie's to Hearst. As soon as Hearst is fooled by the switch, he announces his plans to leave Deadwood, putting another local brother owner, Cy Tolliver, in control of his mining affairs in the camp. As the third and final season of the show draws to a close, Swearengen and Wu put together an army to battle Hearst's milita, and Bullock receives news that Hearst may have cost him the election by bribing people outside of the camp to vote against him. The show ends with both parties on the brink of war, with the newly-appointed Tolliver at the helm. Tolliver is a long-time Deadwood resident who was forced into working for Hearst earlier in the season. The final scene shows Tolliver pointing a gun towards Hearst, who is walking away from the disruption he caused, but he is unable to pull the trigger. One wonders what Tolliver will “make of” this anarchy.
Deadwood reminds us that even if the authors of anarchy can be traced, there are no international institutions to hold them accountable. Most all of the actions and reactions that take place between Swearengen and Hearst take place in broad daylight, in front of the Deadwood public. The actors, in this instance, are well-known. But, still, Deadwood is a lawless place where anarchy resides, just like the international territory that sovereign nation-states encounter. Even if Swearengen and Hearst are to blame for these war crimes, who will hold them accountable? Perhaps after Deadwood's annexation, and stipulations for law and order are set, justice can be served. But even then one can argue whether or not Swearengen and other Deadwood residents have more jurisdiction in the ungoverned territory than does Hearst, who is just trying to make a living like everyone else. How are one's interests more valued than another's? Weber talks about focusing on the social practices within a state, which, in turn, determine how its actors will behave in the face of anarchy. If Swearengen's state is one that elects to be cooperative, and Hearst's state is one that chooses to be conflictual, what third party decides if those choices are reasonable or not? In International Relations, there is no arbitrator who decides who is right or wrong for choosing to declare to war. Even when Hearst's actions are clearly immoral, Swearengen's reactions are still questionable. But as Wendt explains, “Self-help and power politics are institutions, not essential features of anarchy. Anarchy is what states make of it” (Weber 63). Swearengen's type of behavior was necessary for Deadwood's survival, even if his techniques don't fall far from Hearst's. Hearst saw Deadwood as an anarchical playground where he could ravish the inhabitants' way of life to make a dime. Swearengen saw Deadwood as his home, a place worthy of defense and protection and capable of growth, and Hearst as a dangerous intruder who threatened the interests of the camp. “Anarchy is what states make of it,” and these two men both take advantage of the lawlessness of the territory. The difference is Swearengen does so for the greater good of the camp, and Hearst does so only to further line his pocket.
Constructivism's fundamental theory, that “anarchy is what states make of it,” is well-supported by the plot of Deadwood. It highlights the themes of change and social practice when determining how a state will react to the threat of war. Because Deadwood's residents were so fearful of the change presented to them, they put their faith in Swearengen, the man in camp most capable of taking on Hearst. Their social practices were permitting of his decisions, which although many times immoral, were one step less immoral than Hearst's. At the point when Swearengen loses a finger to Hearst, he recognizes that he's no longer in control of the situation, and that the social practices of people living in a lawless society permitted Hearst to stake his claim in Deadwood in the first place. Weber complains that Wendt's version of Constructivism focuses too little on social practice and too heavily on identifying the individual actors behind anarchy (76). She argues that it is impractical to hold a state's actors accountable when they are only making decisions based on what is considered “normal” amongst the state's citizens. And even when a state's actors in anarchy can be identified, who is responsible for their punishment? Just like the lawless Deadwood, International Relations exist in ungoverned territory. As Tolliver fails to shoot Hearst in the back as he walks away from the mess he's made in Deadwood, the only hope for the dissolution of anarchy in the territory is it's annexation into the policy-oriented world, which could bring security and stability to the camp. Weber would argue that for Constructivism to be truly successful, Deadwood's residents must respond to this change by altering their social practices. Only then can Deadwood be an inviting and flourishing society free from the threat of anarchy.
Works Cited
Fierke, K.M. “Constructivism.” International Relations Theories: Discipline and Diversity. Ed. Tim Dunne, Milja Kurki, Steve Smith. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007. 168-169..
Weber, Cynthia. International Relations Theory: A Critical Introduction. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Routledge, 2005. 14, 38, 60-76.
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